Production of low calorie, extruded, expanded foods having a high fiber content

ABSTRACT

An extruded, directly expanded, high fiber reduced calorie food product, such as a ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal or sweet or savory snack, is produced at high production rates without substantial loss of extrusion functionality and extrudability by replacing a substantial portion of at least one flour with a gelatinized, enzyme-resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent as a reduced-calorie, high fiber flour replacer. The resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent contains an enzyme-resistant starch type III having a melting point with an endothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C., and may have a water-holding capacity of less than 3 grams water per gram of the starch-based bulking agent. The total dietary fiber retention of the gelatinized, starch-based bulking agent may be at least about 90% by weight after the extrusion using a die temperature of least about 100° C., and a die pressure of at least about 150 psig.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to the production of low calorie, extruded,directly expanded, foods such as ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal, and snackshaving a high fiber content.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In the mass production of expanded, extruded, starch-based foods such asready-to-eat (RTE) cereals and snacks, extrusion cooking may be employedto achieve high production rates and desirable product attributes suchas low bulk densities, uniform cell structure, crisp or crunchytextures, and in the case of RTE cereals, long bowl life. Fortificationof extruded, expanded foods such as ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals andsnacks with insoluble and soluble dietary fiber as a replacement forhigher calorie starch-based components such as wheat flour may adverselyaffect extrusion functionality or extrudability of the formulation. Forexample, production rates may decrease, extruder surging may increase,or product attributes such as bulk density, cell structure, texture,taste, mouth-feel, and bowl life may suffer as a result of substitutingdietary fiber for starch-based components such as wheat flour.Generally, dietary fiber has a substantially higher water holdingcapacity than starch-based components such as wheat flour. The dietaryfiber absorbs large amounts of water which makes it more difficult toexpand a snack or RTE formulation and to achieve low bulk densities,uniform cell structure, and crispiness comparable to a starch-basedformulation which does not contain fortifying amounts of dietary fiber.Decreasing the amount of added water to achieve a lower bulk densityincreases dough viscosity which tends to result in higher extruder backpressures, and reduced throughput or production rates. Production rateproblems and product attribute problems tend to increase as greateramounts of dietary fiber are used to replace the starch-based componentssuch as wheat flour.

Dietary fiber fortification of expanded snacks and RTE cereals hasgenerally been achieved with bran, or the outer, generallynon-digestible outer coating of whole grains, such as wheat bran andcorn bran as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,777,045 to Vanderveer et al,U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,756,921 and 4,837,112 each to Calandro et al, U.S. Pat.No. 5,169,662 to Spicer, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,176,936 to Creighton et al.However, according to U.S. Pat. No. 5,480,669, the addition of resistantstarch to dough compositions that are intended to be cooker extrudedwill yield a fiber fortified food product that has increased expansionover food products that do not contain the resistant starch or that arefortified with other forms of dietary fiber, such as oat bran or wheatbran.

Enzyme-resistant starch (RS) is a fraction of starch not digested in thesmall intestine of healthy individuals. Certain types of resistantstarch may be partially fermented by microflora in the large bowel.Resistant starch may be classified into four types. Physicallyinaccessible starch, which is locked in the plant cell, is classified astype I resistant starch. It can be found in foodstuffs with partiallymilled grains and seeds and legumes. Native granular starch found inuncooked ready-to-eat starch-containing foods, such as in bananas, isclassified as type II resistant starch. Enzyme susceptibility of type IIresistant starch is reduced by the high density and the partialcrystallinity of the granular starch. Type I and type II resistantstarches have low melting points and do not survive high temperatureprocessing, such as extrusion.

Starch may be treated to obtain an indigestible starch fraction.Depending upon the type of treatment, a type III or a type IV resistantstarch may be produced. In type IV resistant starch, the enzymeresistance is introduced by chemically or thermally modifying thestarch. The modification may be the formation of glycosidic bonds, otherthan alpha-(1-4) or alpha-(1-6) bonds, by heat treatments. Formation ofthese other glycosidic bonds may reduce the availability of starch foramylolitic enzymes. In addition, the digestibility of starch may bereduced by cross-linking or the presence of various substituents such ashydroxypropyl groups. However, legal limitations by the U.S. Food andDrug Administration (FDA) have been placed upon the use of variouschemically modified starches in foods.

An indigestible starch fraction that forms after certain heat-moisturetreatments of the starch is a type III enzyme-resistant starch.Heat-moisture treatments of the starch create crystalline regions,without the formation of glycosidic bonds other than alpha-(1-4) oralpha-(1-6) bonds. The type III resistant starch is thermally verystable, which is highly advantageous for producing reduced-calorieextruded cereals provided it is not substantially adversely affected bymedium to high shear conditions encountered during extrusion. If thecrystal structure that provides enzyme resistance is destroyed or meltsduring extrusion, and if the crystal recrystallizes into a lower-meltingform that is not enzyme resistant, then calorie reduction will not beachieved in the extruded product.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,013,299, 6,352,733, and 6,613,373, U.S. PatentPublication No. 2004/0047963, and International Patent Publication No.WO 99/22606, published May 14, 1999, each to Haynes et al. disclose amethod for producing a starch-based composition comprising a type III,retrograded, enzyme-resistant starch which has a melting point of atleast about 140° C. Haynes et al also disclose a flour substitutecomprising substantially ungelatinized wheat flour and a gelatinized,starch-based bulking agent, which comprises at least about 25% by weightof an amylase-resistant starch type III, based upon the total starchcontent of the starch-based bulking agent. The resistant starchingredient has a melting enthalpy of from about 0.5 Joules/g to about4.0 Joules/g at a temperature of from about 130° C. to about 160° C. asdetermined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), and awater-holding capacity of less than 3 grams of water per gram of dryresistant starch ingredient. The resistant starch has a melting point orendothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C. as determined byMDSC. The enzyme resistant starch type III, it is disclosed, may be usedto produce a baked good such as a cracker, cookie or reduced caloriecookie where the resistant starch ingredient is substantially unalteredby baking. The food product of Haynes et al may be a bar-type product,extruded, sheeted and cut, or rotary molded.

The present invention provides a process for the mass production ofextruded, directly expanded food products such as ready-to-eat (RTE)cereals and expanded snacks having a high dietary fiber content. Thefortification of extruded, expanded foods such as ready-to-eat (RTE)cereals and snacks with dietary fiber as a replacement for highercalorie starch-based components such as wheat flour may be achieved withboth high production rates and desirable product attributes comparableto those of the non-fiber fortified product. It has been found that useof a starch-based composition comprising an enzyme-resistant starch typeIII which has a melting point of at least about 140° C., as determinedby differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and a water holding capacityof less than 3 grams of water per gram of dry resistant starchingredient provides unexpectedly superior extrusion functionality andextrudability compared to the use of other resistant starches in theproduction of extruded, directly expanded food products. The extruded,expanded food products, such as RTE cereals produced in accordance withthe present invention exhibit excellent extrusion characteristics interms of bulk density, moisture content, a crispy, crunchy texture, bowllife, and cell structure. The expanded products may be produced atunexpectedly high production rates using large amounts of resistantstarch for large caloric reductions when compared to rates and caloricreductions using other resistant starches such as a type II or type IVresistant starches, or lower melting type III resistant starches, whichtend to be destroyed under high temperature and high shear processing,such as extrusion.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In the production of a fiber fortified, expanded food product byextrusion cooking, high calorie flour components may be replaced withhigh amounts of a gelatinized, amylase resistant starch type IIIingredient have a low water holding capacity and a high melting pointwithout substantial loss of extrusion functionality and extrudability.Extruder surging and substantial deterioration of the resistant starchtype III are avoided even at high production rates while achievingexpanded products having a bulk density, moisture content, crispy,crunchy texture, uniform cell structure, taste, mouthfeel, and bowl lifecomparable to those of non-fiber fortified expanded products. Inembodiments of the invention, the resistant starch ingredient or bulkingagent may include at least 30% by weight of an amylase-resistant starchtype III having a melting point with an endothermic peak temperature ofat least about 140° C. (also referred to as “X-150” herein) asdetermined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), andthe water-holding capacity of the starch-based bulking agent may be lessthan 3 grams water per gram of the starch-based bulking agent. Anexpanded food product such as a ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal or snackhaving a high resistant starch content may be produced by admixingwater, at least one flour, and the gelatinized, starch based bulkingagent to form a dough, extrusion cooking the dough, extruding the cookeddough through a die at a die temperature of least about 100° C.,preferably at least about 125° C., and a die pressure of at least about150 psig, preferably at least about 250 psig, to substantially expandthe cooked dough, and cutting the expanded and cooked dough into pieces.The total dietary fiber retention of the gelatinized, starch-basedbulking agent may be at least about 90% by weight after the extrusion.High production rates may be used even when the bulking agent isemployed in a preferred amount of at least about 50% by weight basedupon the weight of the bulking agent and the at least one flour. Also,even when the bulking agent is employed in such high amounts, theexpanded products may be produced with a bulk density of from about 0.25g/cm³ to about 0.45 g/cm³, an average peak force brittleness of at leastabout 3000 grams, and an average peak distance brittleness of less thanabout 4 mm.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is schematic diagram of a twin screw extruder having amedium-shear screw profile which may be employed in the production ofexpanded foods in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2 shows extruded brittleness data for samples containing theControl, and X-150, Hi-Maize 1043 and Fiberstar 70 resistant starches.

FIG. 3 shows cell structures for extruded cereal samples containing the

Control, and X-150, Hi-Maize 1043 and Fiberstar 70 resistant starches.

FIG. 4 shows extruded cereal bowl life for extruded cereal samplescontaining the Control, and X-150, Hi-Maize 1043 and Fiberstar 70resistant starches.

FIG. 5 shows extruded brittleness data for samples containing theControl, and Novelose 330 or Hi-Maize 330 resistant starch.

FIG. 6 shows results of an MDSC analysis (reversing heat flow) for HiMaize 1043, X150, the Control, Fibersym 70 (also referred to asFiberstar 70) and Novelose 330 (also referred to as Hi Maize 330) wherethe solid lines are for the resistant starch ingredient and the dashedlines are for the cereal made with the resistant starch ingredient.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The production of an extruded, directly expanded, high fiber reducedcalorie food product, such as a ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal or sweet orsavory snack, at high production rates without substantial loss ofextrusion functionality and extrudability is achieved by replacing asubstantial portion of at least one flour with a gelatinized,enzyme-resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent as areduced-calorie, high fiber flour replacer. The flour replacer employedin the present invention includes a very-high melting, type IIIresistant starch, which is thermally very stable and which is also verystable under high shear conditions. This is highly advantageous forproducing reduced-calorie extruded cereals and snacks, because if thecrystal structure that provides enzyme resistance is destroyed by mediumto high shear or melts during extrusion, and if the crystalrecrystallizes into a lower-melting form which is not enzyme resistant,then calorie reduction will not be achieved in the extruded product.Thus, the present invention employs a very high-melting,high-shear-surviving resistant starch type III ingredient which has beenfound to be substantially unaltered by extrusion. In embodiments of thepresent invention, the total dietary fiber retention of the gelatinized,starch-based bulking agent is at least about 90% by weight afterextrusion cooking under at least medium shear extrusion conditions.

The high melting enzyme-resistant starch type III (also referred to asRS III), employed in the present invention has a melting point with anendothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C., preferably atleast about 145° C., most preferably at least about 150° C., asdetermined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC). Thehigh melting enzyme-resistant starch type III employed in the presentinvention is also referred to herein as “X-150”. Also, the resistantstarch type III ingredient or bulking agent which contains theenzyme-resistant starch type III has a melting point with an endothermicpeak temperature of at least about 140° C., preferably at least about145° C., most preferably at least about 150° C., as determined bymodulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) with essentially noother peaks occurring down to 50° C. indicating the substantial absenceof amylose-lipid complexes as well as the substantial absence of othercrystalline forms of starch.

Also, the resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent employedin the present invention has a low water holding capacity which makesmore added water available for expansion of the extruded dough, helps toreduce dough viscosity and extruder back pressure, and increasesextruder throughput or mass production rates. The low water holdingcapacity avoids the absorption of large amounts of water which wouldmake it more difficult to expand a snack or RTE formulation. Use of alow water holding capacity resistant starch type III ingredient inaccordance with the present invention permits the attainment of a lowbulk density, uniform cell structure, and crispiness comparable to astarch-based formulation which does not contain fortifying amounts ofdietary fiber. Large amounts, preferably at least about 50% by weight ofone or more flours or other starch-based components may be replaced withthe resistant starch type III ingredient without production rateproblems and without product attribute problems such as excessively highbulk density, loss of crispiness, short bowl life, and non-uniform cellstructure.

In embodiments of the invention, the resistant starch type IIIingredient or bulking agent may have a water holding capacity of lessthan 3 grams of water per gram of dry matter or the dry starch-basedbulking agent. In preferred embodiments, the water holding capacity ofthe resistant starch type III ingredient or gelatinized,enzyme-resistant bulking agent or flour substitute or replacer mayapproach that of conventional ungelatinized wheat flour, which may beabout 0.6 grams of water per gram of dry flour, so as to achieveproduction rates and product attributes such as bulk density,crispiness, long bowl life, and uniform cell structure comparable toexpanded products produced with wheat flour in the absence of addeddietary fiber. Exemplary water holding capacities for the resistantstarch type III ingredient or bulking agent are less than about 250% byweight, and preferably range from about 100% by weight to about 200% byweight (e.g., 1.0 gram water/gram dry resistant starch type IIIingredient to 2.0 grams water/gram dry resistant starch type IIIingredient).

In embodiments of the invention, the high fiber, low calorie, extruded,expanded food products may have a bulk density of from about 0.25 g/cm³to about 0.45 g/cm3, an least substantially uniform cell structure, longbowl lives, and a crispy, crunchy texture with an average peak forcebrittleness of at least about 3000 grams, and an average peak distancebrittleness of less than about 4 mm.

An enzyme resistant starch type III, a gelatinized bulking agent orresistant starch type III ingredient containing the resistant starch,and a flour substitute containing the bulking agent which may beemployed in the present invention, and their methods of production aredisclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,013,299, 6,352,733, and 6,613,373, U.S.Patent Publication No. 2004/0047963, and International PatentPublication No. WO 99/22606, published May 14, 1999, each to Haynes etal, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentireties. As disclosed by Haynes et al, a high-melting-point,enzyme-resistant starch type III or RS III having a melting point orendothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C., preferably atleast about 145° C., most preferably at least about 150° C., asdetermined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) may beobtained in high yield by using a nucleating temperature above themelting point of amylopectin crystals. The enzyme-resistant starch typeIII compositions generally melt within a temperature range of about 130°C. to about 160° C. and have an endothermic peak temperature or meltingpoint of at least about 140° C. Essentially no other peaks occur down to50° C. or below, but a small peak may be present, indicating thepresence of a small amount of amylose-lipid complexes. The RS III isnucleated from a gelatinized starch composition which is at leastsubstantially free of amylopectin crystals and amylose-lipid complexes,so as to increase the yield of RS type III. Yields of RS type III may beat least about 25% by weight, preferably at least about 30% by weight,most preferably at least about 35% by weight, based upon the weight ofthe original or starting starch ingredient. The yields are determined bythe more stringent Prosky fiber analysis.

The enzyme-resistant starch type III produced in the Haynes et alprocess and which is used in the present invention is resistant toenzymes such as α-amylase, β-amylase, amyloglucosidase, and pancreatinand provides a reduced-calorie or low-calorie, highly functionalingredient for expanded extruded food products as well as baked goods.

The starches used in preparing the enzyme-resistant starch, as disclosedby Haynes et al may be derived from any source. Exemplary of starcheswhich may be employed are corn, potato, sweet potato, wheat, rice, sago,tapioca, waxy maize, sorghum, legume starch, brewer's spent grain, andmixtures thereof. Examples of legume starches which may be employed arepea starches, such as wrinkled pea or smooth pea starch, faba bean, mungbean, red kidney bean, and lentil bean starch. The starch may bedefatted or chemically modified, for example, converted, derivatized, orcrosslinked, and still yield resistant starch. The starch may also bepartially or completely pregelatinized. However, commercially availablepregelatinized starches may be gelatinized at temperatures which melt ordestroy crystals of naturally present resistant starch type III.Accordingly, it is generally preferable to use raw starches as startingstarches.

Starches which have high contents of amylose or high contents ofamylopectins which have long, straight branch chains are preferred. Thelong, straight branch chains of the amylopectins function as amylose, interms of crystallization, and analyze as amylose by the iodine test. Thestarting starch preferably has a high content of straight chains, toprovide a resistant starch having crystalline chains of at least about20 glucose units, preferably at least about 100 glucose units, derivedfrom amylose and/or from amylopectin.

Preferred as a starting starch in the Haynes et al process and which maybe used for making a RS III for use in the present invention is a starchcontaining greater than 40% amylose, preferably at least about 50%amylose, most preferably at least about 60% by weight amylose, basedupon the total weight of amylose and amylopectin. The starting starchalso preferably has a low lipid content, for example less than about0.1% by weight, preferably less than about 0.05% by weight so as toavoid the production of undesirable amylose-lipid complexes. Examples ofpreferred starting starches are amylomaize starch and wrinkled peastarch, because of their high amylose contents or high apparent amylosecontents. Amylomaize may have an amylose content of about 52% by weightto about 80% by weight and a lipid content of about 0.09% by weight. Theamylose content of wrinkled pea starch may be from about 63% by weightto about 75% by weight. In addition, the lipid content of wrinkled peastarch is only about 0.01% by weight, which is advantageous for avoidingthe formation of amylose-lipid complexes. Commercially available highamylose-content starches which may be used as the starting starch in theprocesses of Haynes et al and which may be used in making a RS III foruse in the present invention are HYLON V, a corn starch containing about50% amylose, or HYLON VII, a corn starch containing about 70% amylose,both products of National Starch and Chemical Company, Bridgewater, N.J.

As disclosed in Haynes et al, the very-high-melting, enzyme-resistantstarch (RS III) is produced in high yield, as determined by the morestringent Prosky method for the determination of dietary fiber. Highyields of the enzyme-resistant starch may be achieved on a continuous,consistent basis using relatively short crystal-nucleation andcrystal-propagation times. High yields of the enzyme-resistant starchare achieved using processing conditions which avoid substantialdiscoloration or the production of components which impart offensiveodors to the product. In addition, the production of lower-melting-pointamylopectin crystals, lower-melting-point amylose crystals, andlower-melting-point amylose-lipid complexes, all of which tend to reduceyield of the high-melting resistant starch type III crystals, issubstantially avoided in the process of Haynes et al.

In accordance with the method of Haynes et al, in a first stage of theprocess for making the RS III, a starch ingredient is heated in thepresence of water to at least substantially, preferably completely,gelatinize the starch. Generally, starch gelatinization occurs when: a)water in a sufficient amount, generally at least about 30% by weight,based upon the weight of the starch, is added to and mixed with starchand, b) the temperature of the starch is raised to at least about 80° C.(176° F.), preferably 100° C. (212° F.) or more. The gelatinizationtemperature depends upon the amount of water available for interactionwith the starch. The lower the amount of available water, generally, thehigher the gelatinization temperature. Gelatinization may be defined asthe collapse (disruption) of molecular orders within the starch granule,manifested in irreversible changes in properties such as granularswelling, native crystallite melting, loss of birefringence, and starchsolubilization. The temperature of the initial stage of gelatinizationand the temperature range over which it occurs are governed by starchconcentration, method of observation, granule type, and heterogeneitieswithin the granule population under observation. Pasting is thesecond-stage phenomenon following gelatinization in the dissolution ofstarch. It involves increased granular swelling, exudation of molecularcomponents (i.e. amylose, followed by amylopectin) from the granule, andeventually, total disruption of the granules. See Atwell et al., “TheTerminology And Methodology Associated With Basic Starch Phenomena,”Cereal Foods World, Vol. 33, No. 3, pgs. 306-311 (March 1988). Inembodiments of the present invention, the starch granules of thepregelatinized starches in the resistant starch type III ingredient orbulking agent or flour replacer, and the starch of the extruded,expanded food products may be at least about 90% gelatinized, preferablyat least about 95% gelatinized, most preferably completely gelatinized.

The gelatinization of the starch ingredient in the first stage of theHaynes et al process for making the RS III is conducted at a temperatureabove the melting point of any amylose-lipid complex which may bepresent in the starch ingredient, but below the melting point of theenzyme-resistant starch Type III. In preferred embodiments, the starchis pasted as well as gelatinized. Exemplary starch-gelatinizationtemperatures which may be employed may range from about 110° C. to about130° C. with pressures from about 1.05 kg/cm² to about 21 kg/cm² (about15 psi to about 30 psi). The weight ratio of starch to water may rangefrom about 0.15:1 to about 1:1, preferably from about 0.4:1 to about0.7:1, during gelatinization as well as during the subsequent nucleationand propagation steps.

A second stage of the process involves at least one cycle of crystalnucleation and propagation. In a critical cooling step, the gelatinizedstarch is cooled to a crystal nucleating temperature above the meltingpoint of amylopectin starch to prevent the amylopectin from nucleatingand propagating. The nucleating temperature employed is also preferablynot favorable to nucleation of any amylose-lipid complex which may havebeen present in the starch ingredient. By not cooling below the meltingpoint of amylopectin, nucleation and growth of amylopectin crystals,which are believed to compete with or impede the nucleation and growthof high-melting amylose crystals, is avoided. Exemplary nucleatingtemperatures range from about 55° C. to about 100° C., preferably fromabout 60° C. to about 80° C. The gelatinized starch is maintained at thenucleating temperature for a period of time sufficient to nucleate asubstantial amount of crystals of the high-melting point,enzyme-resistant starch. Exemplary nucleation times range from about 0.5hours to about 3 hours, generally about 1 hour. Longer nucleation times,for example up to about 24 hours, may be used but do not substantiallyincrease yields. The rate of cooling of the gelatinized starch to thenucleating temperature should be as fast as possible and may be at leastabout 1° C./min, preferably at least about 3° C./min, most preferably atleast about 4° C./min.

After maintaining the gelatinized starch at the nucleating temperature,the temperature of the gelatinized starch is raised above the meltingpoint of any amylose-lipid complexes, to a crystal-propagatingtemperature which is below the melting point of the desiredenzyme-resistant starch. Thus, any amylose-lipid complex which may havebeen formed during nucleation would be remelted during propagation orgrowth of the enzyme-resistant starch crystals. The temperature may beraised from the nucleating temperature to the crystal-propagatingtemperature at a rate of from at least about 1° C./min, preferably atleast about 3° C./min, most preferably at least about 4° C./min to avoidany substantial propagation of undesirable crystals, such asamylose-lipid complexes. Exemplary crystal-propagating temperatures forgrowing crystals of the enzyme-resistant starch may range from about115° C. to about 135° C., preferably from about 120° C. to about 130° C.Exemplary times for maintaining the temperature at thecrystal-propagating temperature are generally less than about 12 hours,preferably less than about 5 hours, most preferably from about 0.5 toabout 3 hours.

The steps of cooling the gelatinized starch, maintaining the gelatinizedstarch at the nucleating temperature, raising the temperature of thegelatinized starch to a crystal-propagating temperature, and maintainingthe temperature at the crystal-propagating temperature to grow crystalsmay be sequentially performed in at least one cycle, preferably from twoto four cycles, to increase yields of the high-melting enzyme-resistantstarch. In embodiments of the Haynes et al invention, up to about 10 to12 cycles may be utilized.

After the last step of crystal propagation, the gelatinized starch maybe cooled to about room temperature, or about 20° C. to about 50° C. andthen dried. Exemplary cooling rates may be at least about 1° C./min onaverage, preferably at least about 3° C./min on average, most preferablyat least about 4° C./min on average. The drying may be performed at roomtemperature or at elevated temperatures. Thus, the gelatinized starchmay be cooled from the crystal-propagating temperature to roomtemperature or to a drying temperature which is above room temperature.Exemplary drying temperatures may range from about 20° C. to about 130°C., depending on mode of drying, preferably from about 75° C. to about85° C., e.g. about 80° C., for oven-drying.

The temperature cycling increases yield and achieves high caloriereduction, without the need to isolate the high-melting enzyme-resistantstarch type III. The drying of the high-melting-point resistant starchtype III composition is conducted to achieve a shelf-stable wateractivity or relative humidity of less than about 0.7. The water contentof the dried product may approximate that of commercially availableflour. Exemplary moisture contents of the dried, bulking agent or floursubstitute or replacer may range from about 8% by weight to about 14% byweight. The dried composition may be used as a bulking agent, or floursubstitute or replacer, thereby avoiding crystal solids losses andincreased costs associated with isolation of the high-melting resistantstarch type III.

In embodiments of the Haynes et al invention, a debranching enzyme suchas pullulanase may be used to increase the yield of the high-meltingenzyme-resistant starch type III. The debranching may occur prior to, orpreferably after, a substantial amount of high-melting enzyme-resistantstarch type III has been propagated.

In other embodiments of the Haynes et al process, seed crystals of thehigh-melting enzyme-resistant starch type III may be admixed with thegelatinized starch above the melting point of amylopectin crystals andabove the melting point of any amylose-lipid complexes, but below themelting point of the high-melting enzyme-resistant starch, to nucleatecrystals of the enzyme-resistant starch type III.

In preferred embodiments of the Haynes et al process, a third stage maybe conducted, involving heat treatment of the enzyme-resistant starchtype III product obtained from the second-stage nucleation/propagationtemperature cycling which substantially improves the bakingcharacteristics or baking functionality of the second-stage product.Enzyme resistant starch type III which is obtained by the heat treatmentprocess of Haynes et al is preferred for use in producing the extrudedexpanded food products of the present invention. The RS III obtainedusing the heat treatment has been found by the present inventors toprovide excellent extrusion functionality and extrudability in theproduction of expanded foods. As disclosed in Haynes et al the heattreatment substantially increases the amount or yield ofenzyme-resistant starch or total dietary fiber. The higherenzyme-resistant starch content or dietary fiber content is achieved,without substantially adversely affecting the content ofenzyme-resistant starch type III which melts at a temperature of atleast about 140° C. The heat-treatment in the presence of water isbelieved to result in densification of the amorphous regions of thestarch thereby making those regions less accessible to enzymes. Thereduced accessibility increases the amount of enzyme resistant starch ortotal dietary fiber. However, no change in the enthalpy is interpretedto mean that the heat-treatment increases the amount of enzyme resistantstarch which is not crystalline.

The heat treatment, as disclosed by Haynes et al may be conducted at atemperature of from about 100° C. to about 140° C., preferably fromabout 125° C. to about 135° C., most preferably from about 128° C. toabout 132° C. Heat-treatment times may range from about 5 minutes toabout 6 hours, preferably from about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes,most preferably from about 50 minutes to about 70 minutes. The moisturecontent of the enzyme-resistant starch during heat treatment may be fromabout 1% by weight to about 30% by weight, preferably from about 14% byweight to about 24% by weight, most preferably from about 16% by weightto about 20% by weight.

The non-purified resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agentobtained by the process of Haynes et al and which may be used in thepresent invention comprises at least about 25% by weight, preferably atleast 30% by weight, most preferably at least 45% by weight of enzymeresistant starch type III as determined by the stringent Prosky method.The balance of the product comprises gelatinized, amorphous, ornon-crystallized starch. In preferred embodiments, it is at leastsubstantially free, most preferably essentially or completely free ofamylose-lipid complexes and other crystallized starch products having amelting point below that of resistant starch III.

The water holding capacity of the resistant starch type III ingredientof Haynes et al which may be used in the present invention is less than3 grams of water per gram of dry matter, depending upon the yield ofresistant starch type III and the quality of the crystals. Generally,the fewer the amorphous regions and the greater the crystalline regions,the less is the ability of the resistant starch ingredient to bind orhold water. The lower water holding capacities generally result in alower viscosity dough and a beneficial effect upon extrusion rates, andexpanded product attributes such as bulk density and crispiness.

Enthalpy values for the isolated high-melting enzyme-resistant starchdisclosed by Haynes et al and which may be used in the present inventionmay range from greater than about 5 J/g, preferably from about 8 J/g toabout 15 J/g depending upon the perfection of the crystals or the numberof amorphous regions or sections in the crystal. Generally, higherenthalpy values indicate, that there are fewer amorphous regions, andthe water holding capacity is lower. The enthalpy of the enzymeresistant bulking agent or ingredient, or flour substitute, at atemperature within the range of about 130° C. to about 160° C., used inthe present invention may range from about 0.5 J/g to about 4 J/g,preferably from about 1 J/g to about 3 J/g, most preferably about 2.5J/g, based upon the weight of the bulking agent or ingredient, or floursubstitute. After extrusion, enthalpy values of the enzyme-resistantbulking agent or ingredient, or flour substitute in the expanded,extruded food product, such as a ready-to-eat cereal may range fromabout 0.5 J/g to about 4 J/g, for example about 3.2 J/g, preferably fromabout 1 J/g to about 3 J/g, most preferably about 2.5 J/g, at atemperature within the range of about 130° C. to 160° C., based upon theweight or content of the bulking agent or flour substitute employed inthe formula. The enthalpy values of the bulking agent or resistantstarch type III ingredient, or flour substitute after extrusion arepreferably at least substantially the same as, or essentially the sameas the enthalpy values of the bulking agent or ingredient, or floursubstitute prior to extrusion.

The enzyme resistance and low caloric value of the very high meltingenzyme resistant starch type III ingredient or component issubstantially unaltered by extrusion cooking under medium to high shearconditions and elevated temperatures and pressures which are sufficientto substantially expand the cereal or snack dough upon exiting theextruder die. The RS type III ingredient or bulking agent remainssubstantially enzyme resistant and exhibits a reduced calorie value. Thepure, or 100% by weight (100% yield) enzyme resistant starch type III(having a melting point or endothermic peak of at least 140° C.,preferably at least 145° C., most preferably at least 150° C., asdetermined by MDSC) has a calorific value of essentially zero, or lessthan about 0.5 calories/gram, even after extrusion cooking andexpansion. The calorific value for starch which is not resistant starchtype III is about 4 calories/gram. (Although technically calorificvalues are in kcal/gm, they are discussed herein in terms of thecommonly used units of calories/gram.) Thus, in embodiments of theinvention a resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent withat least a 30% yield of RS type III (having a melting point orendothermic peak temperature of at least 140° C., preferably at least145° C., most preferably at least 150° C., as determined by MDSC) willexhibit a calorific value of less than about 2.8 calories/gram (0.7×4cal/g+0.3×0 cal/g=2.8 cal/g), even after the extrusion cooking andexpansion. In preferred embodiments, a resistant starch type IIIingredient or bulking agent with a 60% to 50% yield of RS type III(having a melting point or endothermic peak temperature of at least 140°C., preferably at least 145° C., most preferably at least 150° C., asdetermined by MDSC) will exhibit a calorific value of about 1.6 to 2.0calories/gram (0.4×4 cal/g+0.6×0 cal/g=1.6 cal/g, and 0.5×4 cal/g+0.5×0cal/g=2.0 cal/g), even after extrusion cooking and expansion.

The yield or amount of RS type III is determined by fiber analysis.Several methods are available for the in vitro determination ofresistant starch. In the Prosky method (AOAC, method 991.43, J. Assoc.Anal. Chem., 68(2), pp. 399 (1985) and AOAC, Official Methods ofAnalysis, J. Assoc. Anal. Chem., 15th ed., pp. 1105-1106 (1990)), afiber fraction is isolated in the starch samples after incubation withdifferent enzymes, such as a heat-stable alpha-amylase at 100° C. Inthis residue, RS is determined as the starch available foramyloglucosidase digestion at 60° C., only after solubilization with 2Npotassium hydroxide. The resistant-starch yields in the Prosky methodare lower than other methods used, since it is more severe. When usingincubation temperatures of 100° C., the starch is gelatinized and RStype II is not quantified. Additionally, retrograded amylopectin, whichexhibits a melting temperature of about 50° C., and amylose-lipidcomplexes, with melting temperatures in the range of 90° C.-110° C., areeasily hydrolyzed when incubated with a heat-stable alpha-amylase at100° C.

Even though the resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agentcontains high amounts of gelatinized starch, it exhibits excellentextrusion functionality and extrudability in terms of extruderthroughput or production rates, and expanded product attributes such asbulk density, crispiness, bowl life, taste, and uniform cell structure.It may be used alone or preferably in combination with non-gelatinized,or substantially ungelatinized flour to obtain doughs for the productionof reduced calorie extruded, expanded foods such as reduced calorieready-to-eat cereals, and reduced calorie savory and sweet snacks.

In embodiments of the present invention, substantial calorie reductionin expanded, extruded food products may be achieved by replacing asubstantial amount of at least one conventional, non-gelatinized, flourwith the resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent. Floursubstitutes comprising substantially ungelatinized flour (non-caloriereduced flour) and calorie reducing amounts of the gelatinized,starch-based bulking agent (reduced calorie flour replacer), such asdisclosed in Haynes et at may be employed in the present invention. Theflour substitute may be combined with RTE cereal and snack ingredientsto provide doughs which exhibit excellent extrusion functionality andextrudability in medium shear to high shear cooker extruders. Inembodiments of the invention, the flour substitute employed may have acalorie reduction of at least about 12.5%, preferably at least about15%, most preferably at least about 25%, for example about 35% to about40% by weight, compared to a conventional, non-calorie reduced flour.The flour substitute may be used with other reduced calorie bulkingagents or sugar substitutes, such as polydextrose, to obtain doughs forproducing reduced calorie extruded, expanded RTE cereals and reducedcalorie extruded expanded snacks having a calorie reduction of at leastabout 25%.

The flour substitutes and doughs of the present invention may compriseat least about 12.5% by weight, preferably at least about 15% by weight,most preferably at least about 25% by weight, for example about 35% byweight to about 40% by weight, of enzyme resistant starch type IIIhaving a melting point or endothermic peak temperature of at least about140° C., the weight percentage being based upon the total starch contentof the flour substitute or dough, respectively.

The flour component or farinaceous materials which may be combined withthe resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent in producingthe flour substitutes and doughs employed in the present invention maybe any comminuted cereal grain or edible seed or vegetable meal,derivatives thereof and mixtures thereof. Exemplary of the flourcomponent or farinaceous materials which may be used are wheat flour,corn flour, corn masa flour, oat flour, barley flour, rye flour, riceflour, potato flour, grain sorghum flour, tapioca flour, graham flour,or starches, such as corn starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potatostarch, tapioca starch, physically and/or chemically modified flours orstarches, such as pregelatinized starches, and mixtures thereof. Theflour may be bleached or unbleached. Wheat flour or mixtures of wheatflour with other grain flours are preferred.

The amount of gelatinized starch-based bulking agent, or the RS IIIingredient, may generally be at least about 25% by weight, for exampleat least about 40% by weight, preferably greater than 45% by weight,most preferably from about 50% by weight to about 75% by weight, basedupon the total weight of the gelatinized bulking agent and the flourcomponent, such as conventional, ungelatinized wheat flour.

The total amount of the flour component and the RS III bulking agentused in the compositions of the present invention may range, forexample, from about 30% by weight to about 95% by weight, preferablyfrom about 50% by weight to about 90% by weight, for example from about70% by weight to about 85% by weight, based upon the weight of thedough. Unless otherwise indicated, all weight percentages are based uponthe total weight of all ingredients forming the doughs or formulationsof the present invention, except for inclusions such as flavor chips,nuts, raisins, and the like. Thus, “the weight of the dough” does notinclude the weight of inclusions.

The flour component may be replaced in whole or in part by conventionalflour substitutes or bulking agents, such as polydextrose,hollocellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, mixtures thereof, and thelike. Corn bran, wheat bran, oat bran, rice bran, mixtures thereof, andthe like may also be substituted in whole or in part for the flourcomponent to enhance color, or to affect texture.

Process-compatible ingredients, which can be used to modify the textureof the products produced in the present invention, include sugars suchas sucrose, fructose, lactose, dextrose, galactose, maltodextrins, cornsyrup solids, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, protein hydrolysates,glucose syrup, mixtures thereof, and the like. Reducing sugars, such asfructose, maltose, lactose, and dextrose, or mixtures of reducing sugarsmay be used to promote browning. Fructose is the preferred reducingsugar, because of its ready availability and its generally more enhancedbrowning and flavor-development effects. Exemplary sources of fructoseinclude invert syrup, high fructose corn syrup, molasses, brown sugar,maple syrup, mixtures thereof, and the like.

The texturizing ingredient, such as sugar, may be admixed with the otheringredients in either solid or crystalline form, such as crystalline orgranulated sucrose, granulated brown sugar, or crystalline fructose, orin liquid form, such as sucrose syrup or high fructose corn syrup. Inembodiments of the invention, humectant sugars, such as high fructosecorn syrup, maltose, sorbose, galactose, corn syrup, glucose syrup,invert syrup, honey, molasses, fructose, lactose, dextrose, and mixturesthereof, may be employed.

In addition to the humectant sugars, other humectants, or aqueoussolutions of humectants which are not sugars or possess a low degree ofsweetness relative to sucrose, may also be employed in the dough orbatter. For example, glycerol, sugar alcohols such as mannitol,maltitol, xylitol and sorbitol, and other polyols, may be used ashumectants. Additional examples of humectant polyols (i.e. polyhydricalcohols) include glycols, for example propylene glycol, andhydrogenated glucose syrups. Other humectants include sugar esters,dextrins, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, and other starch hydrolysisproducts.

In embodiments of the present invention, the total sugar solids content,or the texturizing ingredient content, of the doughs of the presentinvention may range from zero up to about 50% by weight, based upon theweight of the dough.

The sugar solids may be replaced in whole or in part by a conventionalsugar substitute or conventional bulking agent such as polydextrose,hollocellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, mixtures thereof, and thelike. Polydextrose is a preferred sugar substitute or bulking agent formaking the reduced calorie baked goods of the present invention.Exemplary replacement amounts may be at least about 25% by weight, forexample at least about 40% by weight, preferably from about 50% byweight to about 75% by weight, of the original sugar solids content.

In embodiments of the invention, the amount of the conventional sugarsubstitute, conventional bulking agent, or conventional floursubstitute, preferably polydextrose, may be from about 10% by weight toabout 35% by weight, preferably from about 15% by weight to about 25% byweight, based upon the weight of the dough.

The moisture contents of the doughs of the present invention should besufficient to provide the desired consistency to enable proper forming,machining, and cutting of the dough. The total moisture content of thedoughs of the present invention will include any water included as aseparately added ingredient, as well as the moisture provided by flour(which usually contains about 12% to about 14% by weight moisture), themoisture content of the RS III ingredient, and the moisture content ofother dough additives included in the formulation, such as high fructosecorn syrup, invert syrups, or other liquid humectants.

Taking into account all sources of moisture in the dough, includingseparately added water, the total moisture content of the doughs of thepresent invention is generally less than about 30% by weight, preferablyless than about 20% by weight, based upon the weight of the dough. Theamount of added water is generally in the amount of about 2% to 15% byweight, preferably from about 5% by weight to about 10% by weight, basedupon the total weight of the dry ingredients or powder feed which is fedto the extrusion cooker.

Oleaginous compositions which may be used to obtain the doughs andextruded, expanded food products of the present invention may includeany known shortening or fat blends or compositions useful for cooking orbaking applications, and they may include conventional food-gradeemulsifiers. Vegetable oils, lard, marine oils, and mixtures thereof,which are fractionated, partially hydrogenated, and/or interesterified,are exemplary of the shortenings or fats which may be used in thepresent invention. Edible reduced- or low-calorie, partially digestibleor non-digestible fats, fat-substitutes, or synthetic fats, such assucrose polyesters or triacyl glycerides, which are process-compatiblemay also be used. Mixtures of hard and soft fats or shortenings and oilsmay be used to achieve a desired consistency or melting profile in theoleaginous composition. Exemplary of the edible triglycerides which canbe used to obtain the oleaginous compositions for use in the presentinvention include naturally occurring triglycerides derived fromvegetable sources such as soybean oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil,rapeseed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, sunflower seed oil, andmixtures thereof. Marine and animal oils such as sardine oil, menhadenoil, babassu oil, lard, and tallow may also be used. Synthetictriglycerides, as well as natural triglycerides of fatty acids, may alsobe used to obtain the oleaginous composition. The fatty acids may have achain length of from 8 to 24 carbon atoms. Solid or semi-solidshortenings or fats at room temperatures of, for example, from about 75°F. to about 95° F. may be used. Preferred oleaginous compositions foruse in the present invention comprise soybean oil.

Extruded, expanded food products which may be produced in accordancewith the present invention include reduced calorie food products whichare also reduced fat, low fat or no-fat products. As used herein, areduced-fat food product is a product having its fat content reduced byat least 25% by weight from the standard or conventional product. Alow-fat product has a fat content of less than or equal to three gramsof fat per reference amount or label serving. However, for smallreference amounts (that is, reference amounts of 30 grams or less or twotablespoons or less), a low-fat product has a fat content of less thanor equal to 3 grams per 50 grams of product. A no-fat or zero-fatproduct has a fat content of less than 0.5 grams of fat per referenceamount and per label serving.

In addition to the foregoing, the doughs of the invention may includeother additives conventionally employed in extruded, expanded foodproducts such as ready-to-eat cereals, sweet snacks, and savory snacks.Such additives may include, for example, vitamins, minerals, milkby-products, egg or egg by-products, cocoa, vanilla or other flavorings,natural or artificial fruit flavors, spices such as cinnamon and/ornutmeg, honey flavoring, dry honey, almond flavoring, and mapleflavoring, as well as inclusions such as nuts, raisins, and coconut, andthe like in conventional amounts.

A source of protein, which is suitable for inclusion in expandedready-to-eat cereals and snacks, may be included in the doughs of thepresent invention to promote Maillard browning or to provide proteinfortification. The source of protein may include non-fat dry milksolids, dried or powdered eggs, mixtures thereof, and the like. Theamount of the proteinaceous source may, for example, range up to about5% by weight, based upon the weight of the dough.

The dough compositions of the present invention may contain up to about5% by weight of a leavening system, based upon the weight of the dough.Exemplary of chemical leavening agents or pH-adjusting agents which maybe used include alkaline materials and acidic materials such as sodiumbicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, calcium acid phosphate, sodium acidpyrophosphate, diammonium phosphate, tartaric acid, trisodium phosphatedodecahydrate, mixtures thereof, and the like. Yeast may be used aloneor in combination with chemical leavening agents.

The doughs of the present invention may include antimycotics orpreservatives, such as calcium propionate, potassium sorbate, sorbicacid, and the like. Exemplary amounts may range up to about 1% by weightof the dough, to assure microbial shelf-stability.

Emulsifiers may be included in effective, emulsifying amounts in thedoughs of the present invention. Exemplary emulsifiers which may be usedinclude, mono- and di-glycerides, polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acidesters, lecithin, stearoyl lactylates, and mixtures thereof. Exemplaryof the polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters which may be used arewater-soluble polysorbates such as polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitanmonostearate (polysorbate 60), polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate(polysorbate 80), and mixtures thereof. Examples of natural lecithinswhich may be used include those derived from plants such as soybean,rapeseed, sunflower, or corn, and those derived from animal sources suchas egg yolk. Soybean-oil-derived lecithins are preferred. Exemplary ofthe stearoyl lactylates are alkali and alkaline-earth stearoyllactylates such as sodium stearoyl lactylate, calcium stearoyllactylate, and mixtures thereof. Exemplary amounts of the emulsifierwhich may be used range up to about 3% by weight of the dough.

Production of the doughs of the present invention may be performed usingconventional dough mixing techniques and equipment used in theproduction of extruded, expanded foods such as ready-to-eat breakfastcereals, and extruded, expanded snacks. For example, the doughs may beextrusion cooked and extruded through extrusion dies using conventionalsingle or twin cooker extruders. The extruders may be equipped withconventional medium to high shear screw configurations for at leastsubstantially homogeneously admixing and heating the dry ingredients andadded water to obtain a cooked dough and then extruding the cooked doughthrough one or more apertures of a conventional extrusion die employedfor the production of expanded snacks and cereals. In embodiments of theinvention where medium to high shear conditions are employed, thespecific mechanical input during admixing and heating of the ingredientsto obtain a formable mixture or dough may be greater than 150 Wh/kg. Theresistant starch type III ingredient may be preblended with the one ormore flour components to obtain a substantially homogeneous mixture formixing with the other dough ingredients.

In embodiments of the invention, a dough comprising all ingredients maybe made using conventional batch or continuous mixers. Subsequently, thedough, which may be a crumbly dough may be fed into a single screwextruder. The single screw extruder presses the dough against a dieplate and plasticizes the crumbs into a continuous dough phase which maythen be pressed through an extrusion die and subsequently cut intoindividual particulates.

In other embodiments of the invention, the dough can be made in aconventional batch mixer or continuously using a continuous mixer orextruder alone without substantial heating of the ingredients. The doughmay then be fed to a cooker extruder for cooking and extrusion. Inpreferred embodiments, the dry ingredients and the wet ingredients areseparately fed to a cooker extruder for admixing and heating of theingredients to obtain a cooked or at least substantially gelatinizeddough which is extruded through the die plate of the cooker extruder.Single or twin screw cooker extruders are advantageously used whichenable the steps of continuously mixing and cooking the dough andsubsequently extruding the dough through an extrusion die plate.Co-rotating intermeshing twin screw extruders, such as those availablefrom Buhler, Switzerland, Clextral France, Werner and PfleidererGermany, APV England or Wenger USA, or a Co-Kneader, available fromBuss, Switzerland may be employed in embodiments of the invention. Thecooker extruder employed may have a plurality of separately temperaturecontrolled barrel sections, such as 4 to 8 barrel sections. For example,a Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK 25 MC twin-screw cooker extruder with sixtemperature controlled barrel sections, a medium shear screw profile,and a ¼ inch 2-strand die may be employed in the present invention forproducing expanded ready-to-eat cereals and snacks.

In accordance with the method of the present invention, an at leastsubstantially homogenous preblend of the dry ingredients and the addedwet ingredients, such as water, may be admixed and heated to plasticizethe at least one flour component and the resistant starch ingredienttype III or flour substitute under at least low shear mixing conditions,preferably medium shear mixing conditions without substantiallydestroying or decomposing resistant starch ingredient type III or floursubstitute. In preferred embodiments, the dry ingredients and the wetingredients or plasticizer may be added to the upstream end of thecooker extruder, mixed and heated above the gelatinization temperatureof starch, but at or below the melting point or endothermic peaktemperature of the resistant starch type III while mixing and conveyingthese ingredients inside the extruder. While higher temperatures may beemployed for short residence times, it is preferable to employtemperatures which substantially or essentially completely avoid meltingof the crystals which may result in loss of total dietary fiber contentas measured by the Proskey method. In embodiments of the invention, thestarch is at least partially gelatinized without substantiallydestructurizing and dextrinizing the starch. The degree ofgelatinization may, for example, be at least about 75%, for example, atleast about 90%, or essentially completely gelatinized.

In embodiments of the invention, to achieve at least substantialgelatinization of starch, the starch and plasticizer (preferably water)admixture may be maintained at an extrusion cooking temperature of theblend of at least about 100° C., preferably from about 120° C. to about150° C., for example, from about 125° C. to about 140° C., for a periodof time of at least about 2 l/d preferably from about 3 l/d to about 5l/d of extruder length. For example, for starches having an amylosecontent of more than about 25%, for example about 50% to about 70%, itmay be necessary to maintain a product temperature inside the extruderof about 125° C. for a sufficient amount of time, preferably from about3 l/d to about 5 l/d, for example about 3 l/d, of extruder length at alow screw rotational rate of about 150 to about 200 rpm using mediumpitch screw elements to assure at least substantial gelatinization ofthe starch.

In embodiments of the invention, exemplary screw speeds may range fromabout 75 to about 275 rpm, preferably from about 175 rpm to about 225rpm. Higher rpm tend to introduce more shear, dextrinize anddestructurize starch to a larger extent. Low screw speeds (rpm's) alsoincrease the degree of fill and thus heat transfer capability, i.e.heating and cooling. In embodiments of the invention, the generatedtorque may range from about 40% to about 60%.

In embodiments of the invention, the pressure maintained within thecooking section or gelatinization section or plastification zone may bebetween about 5 to 100 bars, preferably between about 10 and 50 bars.

An overall quantitative measure of the shear used inside the extruderduring the cooking process is the specific mechanical energy input. Inlow shear mixing embodiments of the present invention, the specificmechanical input during cooking may be below about 0.120 kWh/kg. Inmedium shear mixing embodiments of the present invention, the specificmechanical input during cooking may be from about 0.12 kWh/kg to about0.24 kWh/kg, preferably from about 0.15 kWh/kg to about 0.20 kWh/kg,most preferably from about 0.16 kWh/kg to about 18 kWh/kg. In high shearmixing embodiments of the present invention, the specific mechanicalinput during cooking may be greater than about 0.24 kWh/kg, for examplefrom 0.25 kWh/kg to about 0.35 kWh/kg, or higher. In preferredembodiments the specific mechanical input during cooking is less thanabout 0.24 kWh/kg, preferably below about 0.20 kWh/kg, and mostpreferably below about 0.18 kWh/kg. Most preferably, medium shear mixingduring cooking is employed in the present invention.

The admixing of the ingredients inside the extruder may be accomplishedby using an appropriate extrusion screw configuration for achieving lowshear or medium shear mixing. For example, a combination of alternatingsmall pitch conveying elements with distributive mixing elements, thatare staggered at an angle to each other for providing axially orientedleakage flow inside the extruder barrel may be employed for low shearmixing. The combination of alternating conveying elements withdistributive mixing elements cause the material flow to be continuouslyinterrupted without shearing of the mass thus resulting in mixing of thematerial at low mechanical energy input. To achieve medium shear mixinga combination of alternating small pitch conveying elements and kneadingblocks, and optionally reverse screw elements may be employed. For highshear mixing, more and longer kneading blocks and reverse screw elementsmay be used compared to a medium shear screw configuration.

In other embodiments of the invention, other extruder screwconfigurations may be used that facilitate low shear distributivemixing, such as screw elements of the type ZME, TME, SME, and so-calledIGEL elements commercially available from Werner and Pfleiderer. Formedium shear and high shear mixing screw elements which are kneadingblocks and reverse screw elements having various lengths and pitcheswhich are commercially available may be employed. For example,commercially available kneading blocks or reverse screw elements havinga length of 12 or 24 mm may be employed for medium shear mixing screwconfigurations. Commercially available kneading and reverse screwelements having a length of 36 mm may be additionally employed for highshear mixing configurations.

The total length of the distributive mixing section may be about 3 to 12l/d, preferably about 4 to 6 l/d to sufficiently admix and distributethe ingredients to obtain an at least substantially homogeneous mixtureor blend or dough.

The at least substantially homogeneous mixture of resistant starch typeIII ingredient or bulking agent and other ingredients, or dough, maythen be conveyed towards an extruder die plate. The conveying may beachieved by the use of low pitch extruder screw conveying elements whichbuild up sufficient pressure prior to extruding the mix so that it canbe forced through the apertures in the die plate. Another function ofthe low pitch elements is that they increase the degree of fill insidethe last extruder barrel section. The increased degree of fill enablescontrol of the temperature profile of the mix inside the extruder barrelfor achieving optimum viscosity adjustment and extrusion through thesubsequent die openings.

A medium shear mixing screw configuration 1 which may be employed in thepresent invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. As shown in FIG. 1, a drypowder mix 3 of the dry ingredients are added to the first barrel of theextruder 5. In the first barrel, a 16/16 (pitch/length in mm) mixing andconveying element 8 is followed by two wider pitch 36/36 mixing andconveying elements 10 which mix and convey the powder into the secondand third barrels where water 12 is added for admixture with the powder.Four smaller pitch 24/24 elements 14, followed by an even smaller pitch16/16 element 16 are employed for admixing the water with the powder.The shear is increased with the use of a kneading block section 17having two kneading block elements 18, 20. The first or upstreamkneading block element 18 has an angle of 45°, five blocks, and a lengthof 24 mm (referred to as KB45/5/24 where KB stands for kneading blockand the numbers refer to angle/number of blocks/length). The second ordownstream kneading block 20 is a KB45/5/12 element. The latter, shorterkneading block element 20 is followed by six of the smaller pitch 24/24mixing and conveying elements 14 which produce less shear than thekneading block elements 18, 20. For the remaining screw elements, thepattern of alternating kneading or increased shear elements which isfollowed by more relaxed mixing and conveying elements is repeated threemore times to the end of the 700 mm screw for extrusion of the doughthrough the extruder die 25. The distance between the kneading blocksections 28 and the length of the kneading block sections 28 aredecreased as the remaining kneading block sections 28 get closer to thedie 25. Thus, the remaining screw elements, from the upstream todownstream direction are: one KB45/5/24 element 18, one KB45/5/12element 20, five 24/24 elements 14, two KB45/5/12 elements 20, three24/24 elements 14, one KB45/5/12 element 20, one wide pitch 36/36element 10, one 24/12 element 30 and one 24/24 element.

In embodiments of the invention, extruding the cooked dough through thedie may be at a die temperature of least about 100° C., preferably atleast about 125° C., for example from about 130° C. to about 160° C. anda die pressure of at least about 150 psig, preferably at least about 250psig, for example from about 200 psig to about 1000 psig, preferablyfrom about 300 psig to about 800 psig to substantially expand the cookeddough. The extrudate expands at the exposure to atmospheric pressurejust outside of the die, referred to as “flashing off” of moisture.

The dough may be extruded through extrusion dies with exemplary aperturediameters of from about 1 mm to about 10 mm, preferably from about 3 mmto about 8 mm, for example about 3 mm to about 4 mm. The diameter of theextrudate rope and product may be from about 25% to about 300%,preferably about 50% to about 200% larger than the diameter of the dieapertures due to substantial expansion as the dough composition exitsthe die. The increase in diameter upon exiting the die may occur withsubstantial development of an expanded, puffed, foamy, or uniformcellular structure. In embodiments of the invention, the extruded,expanded rope may have a cross-sectional diameter of from about 1.25 mmto about 30 mm.

The expanded and cooked dough or extrudate rope may be cut at the dieface using a rotating cutter, pelletizer, or rotating knives. In otherembodiments, the extrudate rope may be cut away from the die usingconventional cutting or forming means for producing ready-to-eat cerealsor expanded sweet or savory snacks. The cut pieces may have alength:diameter ratio (l/d ratio) of about 0.5 to 10, for example about1 to about 3. Generally, when cutting at the die face, the cut piecesmay have an l/d ratio of about 0.5 to about 3, preferably about 1 toabout 2. When cutting away from the die, the cut pieces may have anydesirable l/d, such as those which provide a bite-size stick shape orlonger.

In accordance with the process of the present invention, the particlesize may be varied to control the surface to volume ratio of the pelletsor pieces for adjustment of the bowl life. The particle size may bevaried, for example, by the use of different diameters for the extrusiondie openings. Particle size may also be varied by the use of a variablespeed cutter either at the die plate at the end of the extruder or awayfrom the extruder after the ropes have been conveyed for a shortdistance. By varying the speed of the cutter, the size of the cut piecesmay be varied for a given extruder throughput. The use of a variablecutter which is spaced a short distance from the die plate, for example,between about 0.5 meters to about 5 meters permits further surfacecooling, further surface drying, and reduced stickiness to providebetter cutting of the ropes into pieces.

In embodiments of the invention, the extruded pieces may be subjected toconventional flaking operations, for example using counter-rotatingflaking rolls, for producing flaked ready-to-eat cereals or other flakedproducts for human or animal consumption.

After cutting, and optional flaking, the resulting pieces or flakes maybe optionally dried to a sufficiently low moisture content which assuresa sufficiently prolonged storage stability or shelf life. For example,the pieces may be dried to achieve a storage stability or shelf life ofat least about nine months, preferably at least about eighteen months,most preferably at least about thirty-six months. In embodiments of thepresent invention, the drying may be performed using conventional dryingequipment using drying temperatures which do not adversely affect thethermal stability of the components. Exemplary drying temperatures mayrange from about 20° C. to about 120° C., preferably from about 60° C.to about 100° C., more preferably from about 70° C. to about 90° C. Thedrying may be conducted to achieve a moisture content of less than about12% by weight, preferably less than about 6% by weight, for example,from about 1% by weight to about 4% by weight, based upon the weight ofthe expanded food product, exclusive of any inclusions.

The expanded, extruded products of the present invention may have arelative vapor pressure (“water activity”) of less than about 0.7,preferably less than about 0.6, for preservative free microbialshelf-stability.

The ready-to-eat cereal doughs or snack doughs of the present inventionmay be used for the production of reduced calorie ready-to-eat cerealsin the form of puffed balls, rings, strands, sticks, stars, clusters,animal shapes, and other conventional cereal shapes and forms, andreduced calorie expanded snacks such as cheese balls, cheese sticks,puffed rice crackers and the like.

The present invention is further illustrated in the following examples,where all parts, ratios, and percentages are by weight, and alltemperatures are in ° C., unless otherwise stated:

EXAMPLE 1

In this example, the extrusion functionality of an enzyme resistantstarch type III ingredient or bulking agent having at least 30% byweight of an amylase-resistant starch type III having a melting pointwith an endothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C. asdetermined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), and awater-holding capacity of less than 3 grams water per gram of thestarch-based bulking agent (hereinafter also referred to as X-150), isshown to be unexpectedly superior in the production of expanded foodproducts. The unexpectedly superior functionality of X-150 is comparedto the extrusion functionality of:

-   -   1) a commercially available, enzyme resistant starch type II        ingredient (Hi Maize 1043, produced by National Starch and        Chemical Co.),    -   2) a commercially available RS type III having an endothermic        peak temperature substantially less than 140° C. as determined        by MDSC, (Novelose 330, a.k.a. Hi Maize 330, National Starch        Co.), and    -   3) a commercially available, enzyme resistant starch type IV        ingredient (Fibersym 70, a.k.a. Fiberstar 70, produced by MGP        Ingredients)        using conventional, non-heat-treated wheat flour as Control.

The X-150 RS Type III Ingredient or Bulking Agent

The enzyme resistant starch type III ingredient or bulking agent havingan amylase-resistant starch type III having a melting point with anendothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C. (X-150) employedin the present invention may be produced as disclosed in each of U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,013,299, 6,352,733, and 6,613,373 to Haynes et al, Example6, Sample MC-15, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated byreference in its entirety. An X-150 RS type III ingredient or bulkingagent as disclosed therein, which may be employed in the presentinvention, may have a yield or resistant starch type III content afterheat treatment of about 45.7% (dry basis), an onset of melting of theresistant starch isolate of about 129.6° C., a melting point peak forthe resistant starch isolate of about 151.2° C., and an end point ofmelting for the resistant starch isolate of about 165.2° C., and anenzyme resistant starch enthalpy of the crystalline melt of about 8.9J/g. As shown in Tables 3 and 4 below and in FIG. 6, an X-150 RS typeIII ingredient (raw material) employed to demonstrate extrusionfunctionality in the present invention had a total theoretical fibercontent of 50% by weight, an MDSC enthalpy (reversing heat flow) ofabout 3.20 J/g, an onset of melting of the resistant starch isolate ofabout 140° C., a melting point peak for the resistant starch isolate ofabout 158° C., and an end point of melting for the resistant starchisolate of about 169° C.

Hi Maize 1043 (A Resistant Starch Type II)

Hi Maize 1043 has the following characteristics, according to itsmanufacturer National Starch and Chemical Co.:

-   -   Color: white to off-white    -   Form: fine powder    -   Avg. particle size: 10-15 microns    -   Moisture: 13% maximum    -   Total dietary fiber (AOAC method 991.43): 60% minimum (dry        basis)    -   Calories: approx. 1.6 kCal/g

Novelose 330 or Hi-Maize 330 (A Resistant Starch Type III)

Novelose 330 or Hi-Maize 330 has the following characteristics,according to its manufacturer National Starch and Chemical Co.:

-   -   Color: white to off-white    -   Form: fine powder    -   Avg. particle size: 40 microns    -   Moisture (CML-100): 8%    -   Total dietary fiber (AOAC method 991.43): 30% minimum (dry        basis)    -   Calories: approx. 2.8 kCal/g

Fibersym 70 (A Resistant Starch Type IV)

Fibersym 70 has the following characteristics, according to itsmanufacturer MGP Ingredients:

-   -   Color: white to off-white    -   Form: fine powder    -   Moisture: 10.6% typical    -   Total dietary fiber (AOAC method 991.43): 70% minimum (dry        basis)    -   Calories: approx. 3.6 kcal/g

Extrusion functionality was evaluated by measurement of density,moisture content, texture (brittleness) and cell structure. Resistantstarch ingredients that resulted in cereal properties as close to theproperties achieved with the wheat flour Control were considered to havethe best extrusion functionality. Total dietary fiber was used todetermine thermal and shear stability of the resistant starchingredients.

Control was produced following a standard formula for extruded,expanded, RTE cereals. In test samples, 50% of the total flour weight inthe formula (including wheat flour, ground cereal fines and barleymalted flour) was replaced by a resistant starch, namely X150 (variable1), Hi Maize 1043 (variable 2), Fibersym 70 (variable 3), or Novelose330 (Formulas 1 and 2) with the objective of testing their functionalityas flour replacers. The equipment, formulas, mixing procedure, extrusionprocedure, and measurement procedure used in the test were:

Equipment

-   Scale-   Weighing recipients-   Hobart mixer: M-802 U; bowl capacity=80 quarts; 3HP motor; paddle    attachment Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK 25 MC twin-screw extruder with ¼″    2-strand die, set up at a medium-shear screw profile (shown in FIG.    1)-   Metering pump: American Lewa, Inc., Triplex Piston Pump; Capacity:    0-30 lb/hr-   Powder feeder for extruder: Accurate Loss-in-Weight Feeder;    Capacity: 0-60 lb/hr-   Plastic bags for sample collection.

Formulas:

The formulas are shown in Table 1:

TABLE 1 Cereal Formulas Variable 2: Variable 3: Formula 1 Formula 2Variable 1: Hi Maize Fibersym Hi Maize Hi Maize Control X150 1043 70 330330 % Weight % Weight % Weight % Weight % Weight % Weight Ingredient(w/w) (lb) (w/w) (lb) (w/w) (lb) (w/w) (lb) (w/w) (lb) (w/w) (lb) Hardred winter 74.26 37.12 37.14 18.56 37.14 18.56 37.14 18.56 37.10 18.6063.10 31.60 wheat flour X150 0.00 0.00 48.11 24.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hi Maize 1043 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 48.11 24.06 0.000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Fibersym 70 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 48.1124.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hi Maize 330 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000.00 0.00 48.10 24.10 14.40 7.20 Ground cereal 14.99 7.50 7.50 3.75 7.503.75 7.50 3.75 7.50 3.80 12.70 6.40 fines* Barley malted 7.00 3.50 3.501.75 3.50 1.75 3.50 1.75 3.50 1.80 6.00 3.00 flour Granulated sugar 2.001.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 Fine granular1.25 0.63 1.25 0.63 1.25 0.63 1.25 0.63 1.25 0.63 1.25 0.63 saltTrisodium 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.25phosphate dodecahydrate Total 100.00 50.00 100.00 50.00 100.00 50.00100.00 50.00 100.00 50.00 100.00 50.00 *Granulation: on US#18: 1% max.;on US#40: 20% max.; on US#100: 40% max.

Mixing:

All dry ingredients in each formulation shown in Table 1 were mixed for4 minutes in a Hobart mixer, to ensure homogeneity of the dry feed.

Extrusion:

The operating conditions used in the extruder to produce the cerealsamples are shown in Table 2:

TABLE 2 Operating conditions used in a Werner & Pfleiderer ZSK 25extruder Formula 1B Formula 1C Formula 2A Variable 2: Variable 3: HiMaize Hi Maize Hi Maize Variable 1: Hi Maize Fibersym 330 330 330Control X150 1043 70 @ 50% @ 50% @ 15% Processing Set Set Ac- Set SetSet Set Set Parameter point Actual point tual point Actual point Actualpoint Actual point Actual point Actual Barrel temp., 80.0 79.0 80.0 81.080.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 81.0 zone 1 & 2 (° C.)Barrel temp., 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0110.0 111.0 110.0 110.0 111.0 zone 3 & 4 (° C.) Barrel temp., 125.0125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 126.0 125.0 127.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0 125.0125.0 zone 5 & 6 (° C.) Screw speed 200.0 203.0 200.0 203.0 300.0*301.0* 350.0* 352.0* 300.0 302.0 300.0 302.0 200.0 202.0 (rpm) Powderfeed rate 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 30.0* 30.0* 42.0* 42.0* 30.0 30.0 30.030.0 33.0 33.7 (lb/h) Water feed rate 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 2.8* 2.8* 2.5*2.5* 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 (lb/h) Torque (%) 45 49 30 36 34 37 39 Diepressure 801 465 118 246 247 250 451 (psig) Die temperature 148 151 153166 154 155 148 (° C.) *Hi Maize 1043 and Fibersym 70 extrusion operatedat different conditions to prevent caking at the feeding port.

Measurements:

Measurements for bulk density, moisture content, enthalpy, melting peaktemperatures, color, total dietary fiber content, brittleness, cellstructure, and bowl life were made as follows:

-   -   a. Bulk density was calculated by: a) cutting cylindrical pieces        of cereal, weighing them and measuring their diameter and        height; b) dividing the piece weight by its volume (calculated        from the dimensions of the cylindrical piece).    -   b. % Moisture was determined by heating in a vacuum oven for 16        h at 70° C.    -   c. The MDSC enthalpy and melting peak temperature for the raw        materials was measured as in Example 2.    -   d. The MDSC enthalpy and melting peak temperature for the        cereals was measured as in Example 2.    -   e. Cereal samples were ground and their L*, a*, and b* values        (which are standard color measurements of the Committee on        International Illuminescence) were measured using a Hunter Lab        Colorimeter (Miniscan XE, Mod. No. 45/0-L, Hunter Associate        Laboratories Inc., Reston, Va.) equipped with a Hunter Lab        Universal Software version 4.01.    -   f. Total dietary fiber content for each cereal was measured        using the Prosky method (AOAC method 991.43, J. Assoc. Anal.        Chem., 68(2), pp. 399 (1985) and AOAC, Official Methods of        Analysis, J. Assoc. Anal. Chem., 15^(th) ed., pp. 1105-1106        (1990)).    -   g. Brittleness of the dry, extruded cereals was measured using a        texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Texture Technologies Corporation,        Scarsdale, N.Y.) equipped with a 25 kg loadcell. The test        consisted of shearing the sample using a guillotine, while        measuring the resistance to deformation. Brittleness was        obtained by plotting peak force (g) vs. peak distance        (deformation at which the maximum peak force occurs, mm). Data        were collected using Texture Expert Exceed software (Texture        Technologies Corporation, Scarsdale, N.Y.).    -   h. Cell structure was captured using a digital camera        (Hasselblad (Sweden) 555 ELD medium format with a Leaf Cantare        xy digital back). Photographs of a cross section of the cereal        samples were captured at the same magnification for each sample.    -   i. Bowl life was determined by plotting force vs. distance        (deformation) when a sample of cereal was soaked for 30 minutes        in 8° C. water and then compressed using a TA-XT2 (HDi, Texture        Technologies Corporation, Scarsdale, N.Y.) equipped with a 250        kg loadcell. Since the density of the cereals was variable, a        constant volume was kept throughout the tests (weight was        recorded). Data were collected using Texture Expert Exceed        software (Texture Technologies Corporation, Scarsdale, N.Y.).

Results of the final product property measurements for bulk density,moisture content, enthalpy, melting peak temperature, and color arepresented in Table 3, and measurements for fiber content are presentedin Table 4:

TABLE 3 Final Product Property Measurements Bulk Density MDSC Enthalpy @RS Melting Peak Color (g/cm³) Moisture (%) >140° C. (J/g)* Temperature(° C.) L*, a*, b* X150, raw material — — 3.20 158.0 — Hi Maize 1043, raw— — 0 none — material Fibersym 70, raw — — 0 none — material Novelose330 (Hi Maize — — 1.22 106.2 — 330), raw material Control cereal 0.4529.73 0 none 70.61, 3.81, 25.33 X150 cereal, 50% flour 0.309 9.99 2.87152.1 68.49, 4.62, 25.59 replacement Hi Maize 1043 cereal, 0.195 10.021.70 147.8 75.29, 2.47, 22.26 50% flour replacement Fibersym 70 cereal,50% 0.365 7.81 0 none 73.39, 3.21, 26.74 flour replacement Novelose 330(Hi Maize 0.2924 8.6 — — — 330), 50% Formula 1B Novelose 330 (Hi Maize0.3276 9.3 — — — 330), 50% Formula 1C Novelose 330 (Hi Maize 0.4151 10.0— — — 330), 15% Formula 2A *Joules per g of flour, g of X150 in flourblend, g of Hi Maize in flour blend, or g of Fibersym in flour blend,respectively.

TABLE 4 Fiber Content in Extruded, RTE Cereals % Total Dietary Fiber, %AOAC Total % Fiber Retention Theoretical^(a) Dietary Fiber^(b) in RSIngredient^(c) X150 ingredient 50 — — Hi Maize 1043 62 — — IngredientFibersym 70 70, min. 80 — ingredient Novelose 330 (Hi 30 — — Maize 330)ingredient Control cereal 5.58 7.7 — X150 cereal, 50% 23.3 22.4 96 flourreplacement Hi Maize 1043 cereal, 30.7 19.4 63 50% flour replacementFibersym 70 cereal, 34.1 12.60 37 50% flour replacement Novelose 330 (Hi15.8 13.2 83.5 Maize 330), 50% Formula 1 B Novelose 330 (Hi 15.7 12.982.2 Maize 330), 50% Formula 1C Novelose 330 (Hi 9.76 8.45 86.6 Maize330), 15% Formula 2 A ^(a)Calculated based on fiber content ofingredient declared in specifications ^(b)As measured by AOAC 991.43^(c)Calculated based on % Total Dietary Fiber in RS ingredient, declaredin specifications, vs. % Fiber in RS Ingredient After Processing

Discussion of Results: A. RS Type II and RS Type IV

Extrusion runs of samples containing Hi Maize 1043 and Fibersym 70 wereoperated at different conditions than Control and X-150 containingsamples in order to prevent caking at the feeding port. Hi Maize 1043extrusion was conducted at a higher screw speed and lower powder andwater feed rates than Control and X-150 containing samples, resulting in7.41% (w.b.) added water in Control formula and X150 samples and 8.54%(w.b.) added water in Hi Maize 1043 formula samples. Fibersym 70extrusion was conducted at a higher screw speed, slightly higher powderfeed and lower water feed rates than Control and X-150 containingsamples, resulting in 5.62% (w.b.) added water in Fibersym 70 formulasamples.

As shown in Table 3, the bulk density of the three test samples waslower than Control, in the following descending order: Fibersym70>X150>Hi Maize 1043. Bulk density is an important parameter whendealing with packing of a standard weight of cereals in a standardvolume.

Moisture content was similar in Control and samples containing X-150 andHi Maize 1043, indicating that the moisture was effectively “flashedoff” at the extruder die. Samples containing Fibersym 70 presented alower moisture content, due to the conditions used for extrusion.

As shown in Table 3 and FIG. 6, resistant starch raw materials X150, HiMaize 1043, Fibersym 70 (Fiberstar 70) and Novelose 330 (Hi Maize 330)had MDSC enthalpies (reversing heat flow) of 3.20 J/g, 0 J/g, 0 J/g, and1.22 J/g, respectively, at temperatures above 140° C.

Control did not present a MDSC enthalpy above 140 ° C., indicating thatno enzyme resistant starch was present and that none was created duringprocessing. Cereal samples containing X150 presented a MDSC enthalpy(reversing heat flow) of 2.87 J/g (based on g of X150 in the flourblend), comparable to that of the X150 raw material, indicating that theX150 ingredient was stable during extrusion. In addition, it presented ahigh melting point of 152.1° C., corresponding to enzyme resistantstarch ingredients (see Example 2 below). Since it remained unchangedduring extrusion, X150 was very identifiable in the final product.

Cereal samples containing Hi Maize 1043 presented a MDSC enthalpy(reversing heat flow) of about 1.70 J/g (based on g of Hi Maize 1043 inthe flour blend). Thus, generation of crystalline resistant starch,believed to result from high temperature/moisture processes, occurredduring extrusion. A smaller enthalpy than that for X150 represented asample with less degree of crystallinity and, thus, less content ofenzyme resistant starch. In addition, the generated enzyme resistantstarch had a lower melting point than that of X150. Cereal samplescontaining Fibersym 70 did not present a MDSC enthalpy (reversing heatflow).

L*, a* and b* values indicated that samples containing X150 were darkerand redder in color than Control, which was expected due to a dark colorof the X150 ingredient itself. This color could be modified duringcommercial manufacture of such ingredient, if needed. Samples containingHi Maize 1043 were lighter in color, less red and less yellow thanControl, due to a white color of the Hi Maize 1043 ingredient. Samplescontaining Fibersym 70 were lighter in color, less red and slightly moreyellow than Control, due to a white color of the Fibersym 70 ingredient.

As shown in Table 4, the theoretical total dietary fiber content in theresistant starches corresponded to: X-150=50%; Hi Maize 1043=62%;Fibersym 70=70% (although it assayed at 80% using the AOAC 991.43method); and Novelose 330 (Hi Maize 330)=30%, based on the fiber contentof the ingredient declared in the product specifications.

Although cereal samples containing Hi Maize 1043 had a highertheoretical dietary fiber content than cereal samples containing X150,calculated based on fiber content of the ingredient declared in thespecifications, the measured AOAC total dietary fiber for cereal samplescontaining X150 was higher than that for cereal samples containing HiMaize 1043. The calculated % fiber retention (i.e. fiber that survivedprocessing+being generated during processing) corresponded then to 96%for X150 cereals and only 63% for Hi Maize 1043 cereals.

Although cereal samples containing Fibersym 70 had the highesttheoretical dietary fiber content than the rest of the samples,calculated based on measured fiber content of the ingredient (80%), themeasured AOAC total dietary fiber for cereal samples containing Fibersym70 was the lowest of all the samples. The calculated % fiber retentioncorresponded to only 37%. This suggests that Fibersym 70 did notcompletely survive high temperature and high shear conditions presentduring extrusion. Cereal brittleness is presented in FIG. 2. A high peakforce and low peak distance would correspond to a brittle sample, whilea low peak force and high peak distance would correspond to a lessbrittle sample. The x and y-axis error bars represent +/−1 standarddeviation, while the diamonds represent averages. Overlapping error barsrepresent samples that were not significantly different from oneanother. In this case, Control, X-150 and Fibersym 70 samples did notpresent a significantly different peak force or a significantlydifferent peak distance, indicating that they possessed a similarbrittleness. Hi Maize 1043 samples showed a larger peak distance thanthe rest of the samples, indicating a lower brittleness. Hi Maize 1043samples did not present a significantly different peak force than X150or Fibersym 70 samples, but were significantly softer (lower peak force)than Control.

As shown in FIG. 3, air cells were more numerous and larger in Controlthan in the rest of the samples, characteristic which can be correlatedto bulk density. Cell structure is the result of expansion duringextrusion, governed by moisture content, moisture flash-off and flourblend (matrix) physicochemical properties.

As shown in FIG. 4, cereal samples containing X150 showed superiority inbowl life when compared to the other two resistant starch-containingsamples; i.e. X150 samples force vs. distance (deformation) behaviorafter soaking in 8° C. water for 30 minutes was closer to Control thanthat of Fibersym 70 and Hi Maize 1043. For example, if a distance of 10mm was chosen on the force vs. distance plot, it can be seen thatControl was harder (higher force) than the rest of the samples, and thatX150 was harder (higher force) than Hi Maize 1043 and Fibersym 70. Thesame behavior was observed at deformations above 23 mm. In between 15and 23 mm of deformation, Fibersym 70 presented a higher force than bothHi Maize 1043 and X150, but its force vs. deformation curve behaved in avery different manner than Control.

In summary, and as shown by the results discussed above, samplescontaining X150 had a superior extruding functionality and dietary fibercontent compared to Hi Maize 1043 and Fibersym 70.

B. RS Type III (Novelose 330 or Hi-Maize 330)

The formulation #2 with 15% Novelose 330 was run first. It extruded andformed well. It was cut at the die face to form spherical shaped cerealpieces. There were no processing issues. The formulation #1 with 50%Hi-Maize 330 was difficult to process at the same target processingconditions as for the formulation #2. The dough swelling and expansioninside the extruder barrels led to powder backup in the feed barrel andeventually shutdown of the extruder. It was necessary to lower the feedrate and to increase the screw rpm to compensate for dough expansionduring extrusion. The feed rate was lowered to 30 lb/hr v. 33.7 lb/hrfor the formulation #1, and the screw rpm was raised to 300 v. 200 forthe formulation #1. Under the revised set of processing conditions, itwas possible to extrusion cook and form the product in spherical shapedcereal pieces.

Extrusion of samples containing Novelose 330 at 50% replacement wasoperated at higher screw speed and lower powder and water feed ratesthan the 15% replacement level, resulting in lower throughput. Ifoperated under the same conditions as control or the 15% replacementlevel, the Novelose 330 feed caked at the feeding port, was not easilytransported by the screw elements, and caused a backflow or burning ofthe material inside the extruder barrel.

As shown in Table 3, the cereal containing 15% replacement of flourblend with Novelose 330 exhibited a bulk density closer to control thancereal containing 50% replacement of the flour blend with 330, which isan important parameter when dealing with packing of a standard weight ofthe material in a standard volume.

Moisture content was similar in samples containing enzyme-resistantstarches, and both were similar to control, indicating that the moisturewas effectively “flashed off” at the die exit for all the samples.

As shown in Table 4, cereal samples containing Novelose 330 had a highertheoretical dietary fiber than cereal samples without Novelose 330 (theControl). Fiber values are calculated based on fiber content of theflour blend (in accordance with the USDA nutrition database for fiber inflour ingredients) and Novelose 330 fiber declared in the specifications(30% for Novelose 330). The measured values according to the AOAC totaldietary fiber method for cereal samples containing Novelose 330 werelower than expected for cereal samples containing Novelose 330. Thecalculated % fiber retention in the cereals corresponded then to 82.2%and 83.5% fiber retained for Novelose 330 used at 50% replacement of theflour blend in formula 1 and 86.6% retention of fiber when Novelose isused at the 15% flour replacement.

For the extruded cereal brittleness data shown in FIG. 5, the x-axis andy-axis error bars represent +/−1 standard deviation, while the pointsrepresent averages. Overlapping error bars represent samples that werenot significantly different from one another. In this case, the 15%Novelose 330 sample has a significantly different peak force from the50% Novelose sample, indicating that they possessed a differentbrittleness. Novelose 330 at 50% level samples showed a larger peakdistance than both control and 15% samples, indicating a lowerbrittleness.

EXAMPLE 2 Determination of Melting Profile of Resistant Starches TypeII, III and IV and of Cereals Containing Resistant Starches Type II, IIIand IV by MDSC

The melting profile or thermal characteristics of the resistant starchesType II, III and IV, as well as the cereals containing theseingredients, were determined by modulating differential scanningcalorimetry (MDSC). In this technique, the material being analyzed isheated at a steady rate with a programmed saw-tooth pattern of heatingand cooling imposed upon the steady rate. The fluctuation in temperaturein the saw-tooth pattern is about 1° C. The MDSC technique allows a moreprecise analysis of the equilibrium melting point because it separatesoverlapping thermal events such as irreversible decomposition.

The instruments and method used to characterize the ingredients are:

-   a) Instrument: TA Instruments Modulated Differential Scanning    Calorimeter (MDSC), which includes the TA Instruments DSC 2920    Controller, TA Instruments 2920 Module and the TA Instruments RCS    1061 unit.-   b) Sample Pans: Perkin-Elmer stainless steel high pressure capsules    with o-ring-   c) Sample preparation: The ingredients are mixed with water at a 1:1    solids to water ratio. Approximately 30 milligrams of the moist    ingredient are weighed in a DSC sample pan. Cereal samples were    ground into a fine powder before mixing with water.-   d) Instrument calibration: the modulated DSC is calibrated for    baseline, cell constant, temperature and heat capacity in a known    manner:    -   1. Baseline calibration: using two empty sample pans the        baseline slope and baseline offset are determined over a        temperature range from 10 to 270° C., with a heating rate of 5°        C./min    -   2. Cell constant calibration: indium is used as a standard    -   3. Temperature calibration: calibrated at two points using        indium and tin    -   4. Heat Capacity and Sample Characterization: The DSC        calibration data analysis software program is used to make the        proper DSC calibration corrections with the instrument in the        calibration mode. Heat capacity is calibrated using sapphire,        high density polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate, in a        known manner. The sample is characterized with the MDSC in the        Modulated mode using a modulation of +/−0.5° C. every 80 sec.,        and a ramp rate of 4° C. from 25 to 200° C. To analyze the        results, the reversing heat flow curve is integrated from        130° C. to 164° C. to measure the enthalpy of the enzyme        resistant starch types II and III. Samples are run at least in        duplicate.

Results of the MDSC analysis for Hi Maize 1043, X150 and Fibersym 70 areshown in FIG. 6. For Hi Maize 1043, the onset of melting occurs at about93° C., the endothermic peak or melting point is about 101° C., and theendpoint of melting occurs at about 112° C. For X150, the onset ofmelting occurs at about 135° C., the endothermic peak or melting pointis about 151.2° C., and the endpoint of melting occurs at about 165° C.For Fibersym 70, the onset of melting occurs at about 68° C., theendothermic peak or melting point is about 75° C., and the endpoint ofmelting occurs at about 95° C. The software calculates the enthalpy ofthe endothermic peak in J/g.

Results of the MDSC analysis for cereals containing resistant starchingredients are also shown in FIG. 6. For Hi Maize 1043-containingcereal, the onset of melting occurs at about 140° C., the endothermicpeak or melting point is about 148° C., and the endpoint of meltingoccurs at about 155° C. For X150-containing cereal, the onset of meltingoccurs at about 135° C., the endothermic peak or melting point is about152° C., and the endpoint of melting occurs at about 165° C. ForFibersym 70-containing cereal, there was no MDSC enthalpy peak. Thesoftware calculates the enthalpy of the endothermic peak in J/g.

MDSC results for Novelose 330, also known as Hi-Maize 330 (NationalStarch & Chemical Co., Bridgewater, N.J.), another commerciallyavailable type III resistant starch, are shown in FIG. 6. The onset ofmelting occurs at about 101° C., the endothermic peak or melting pointis about 106.2 ° C. and the endpoint of melting occurs at about 130° C.Thus, even though this is a type III resistant starch, it melts at alower temperature than X150, indicating that it would not survive hightemperature extrusion conditions as those used in breakfast cerealmanufacture, as well as X-150 which has unexpectedly superiorfunctionality as a fiber in producing extruded, expanded food products.

1-18. (canceled)
 19. An expanded snack having a high resistant starchcontent comprising at least one flour, and a gelatinized, starch basedbulking agent, the amount of said bulking agent being at least about 30%by weight based upon the weight of said bulking agent and said at leastone flour, said bulking agent comprising at least 30% by weight of anamylase-resistant starch type III having a melting point with anendothermic peak temperature of at least about 140° C. as determined bymodulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), the water-holdingcapacity of said starch-based bulking agent being less than 3 gramswater per gram of said starch-based bulking agent, said snack having anaverage peak force brittleness of at least about 3000 grams, and anaverage peak distance brittleness of less than about 4 mm, and a bulkdensity of from about 0.25 g/cm³ to about 0.45 g/cm³.
 20. An expandedsnack having a high resistant starch content as claimed in claim 19which is a ready-to-eat cereal wherein the amount of said bulking agentis at least about 50% by weight based upon the weight of said bulkingagent and said at least one flour.
 21. An expanded snack having a highresistant starch content as claimed in claim 19 wherein said bulkingagent comprises at least about 45% by weight of said amylase-resistantstarch type III.
 22. An expanded snack having a high resistant starchcontent as claimed in claim 19 which is a sweet or savory snack.
 23. Anexpanded snack having a high resistant starch content as claimed inclaim 19 wherein the enthalpy value of the enzyme-resistant bulkingagent or ingredient in the expanded snack food is from about 0.5 J/g toabout 4 J/g.
 24. An expanded snack having a high resistant starchcontent as claimed in claim 19 wherein the enthalpy value of theenzyme-resistant bulking agent or ingredient in the expanded snack foodis from about 1 J/g to about 3 J/g.
 25. An expanded snack having a highresistant starch content as claimed in claim 19 wherein theenzyme-resistant bulking agent or ingredient in the expanded snack foodhas a calorific value of less than about 2.8 calories/gram.
 26. Anexpanded snack having a high resistant starch content as claimed inclaim 19 wherein the enzyme-resistant bulking agent or ingredient in theexpanded snack food has a calorific value of about 1.6 to 2.0calories/gram.
 27. An expanded snack having a high resistant starchcontent as claimed in claim 19 wherein the amount of said bulking agentis at least about 50% by weight based upon the weight of said bulkingagent and said at least one flour.
 28. An expanded food product having ahigh resistant starch content comprising at least one flour, and agelatinized, starch based bulking agent, the amount of said bulkingagent being at least about 30% by weight based upon the weight of saidbulking agent and said at least one flour, said bulking agent comprisingat least 30% by weight of an amylase-resistant starch type III having amelting point with an endothermic peak temperature of at least about140° C. as determined by modulated differential scanning calorimetry(MDSC), the water-holding capacity of said starch-based bulking agentbeing less than 3 grams water per gram of said starch-based bulkingagent, said snack having an average peak force brittleness of at leastabout 3000 grams, and an average peak distance brittleness of less thanabout 4 mm, and a bulk density of from about 0.25 g/cm³ to about 0.45g/cm³, wherein the enthalpy value of the enzyme-resistant bulking agentor ingredient in the expanded snack food is from about 0.5 J/g to about4 J/g, and the enzyme-resistant bulking agent or ingredient in theexpanded snack food has a calorific value of less than about 2.8calories/gram.
 29. An expanded food product having a high resistantstarch content as claimed in claim 28 wherein the enzyme-resistantbulking agent or ingredient in the expanded snack food has a calorificvalue of about 1.6 to 2.0 calories/gram.
 30. An expanded food producthaving a high resistant starch content as claimed in claim 28 whereinthe enthalpy value of the enzyme-resistant bulking agent or ingredientin the expanded snack food is from about 1 J/g to about 3 J/g.
 31. Anexpanded food product having a high resistant starch content as claimedin claim 28 wherein the amount of said bulking agent is at least about50% by weight based upon the weight of said bulking agent and said atleast one flour.
 32. An expanded food product having a high resistantstarch content as claimed in claim 28 wherein said bulking agentcomprises at least about 45% by weight of said amylase-resistant starchtype III.